Instrumentation in small low energy machines

Low energy particle accelerators are used either as injectors for higher energy machines or as dedicated machines for special purposes. These may be industrial, medical or prototype machines for testing new accelerating schemes. Low energy beams open measurement possibilities not available at higher energies due to the low magnetic rigidity of the particles, due to their small penetration depth and due to rather big beam spot sizes. On the other hand these beams also represent special challenges due to their high energy deposition in matter, space charge problems etc. which are not seen at higher energies. Measurement principles typical for small accelerators will be presented and explained with the help of example implementations.