Black Phosphorus Degradation during Intercalation and Alloying in Batteries

[Image: see text] Numerous layered materials are being recognized as promising candidates for high-performance alkali-ion battery anodes, but black phosphorus (BP) has received particular attention. This is due to its high specific capacity, due to a mixed alkali-ion storage mechanism (intercalation-alloying), and fast alkali-ion transport within its layers. Unfortunately, BP based batteries are also commonly associated with serious irreversible losses and poor cycling stability. This is known to be linked to alloying, but there is little experimental evidence of the morphological, mechanical, or chemical changes that BP undergoes in operational cells and thus little understanding of the factors that must be mitigated to optimize performance. Here the degradation mechanisms of BP alkali-ion battery anodes are revealed through operando electrochemical atomic force microscopy (EC-AFM) and ex situ spectroscopy. Among other phenomena, BP is observed to wrinkle and deform during intercalation but suffers from complete structural breakdown upon alloying. The solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) is also found to be unstable, nucleating at defects before spreading across the basal planes but then disintegrating upon desodiation, even above alloying potentials. By directly linking these localized phenomena with the whole-cell performance, we can now engineer stabilizing protocols for next-generation high-capacity alkali-ion batteries.