Cell Death Pathways: The Variable Mechanisms Underlying Fine Particulate Matter-Induced Cytotoxicity

[Image: see text] Recently, the advent of health risks due to the cytotoxicity of fine particulate matter (FPM) is concerning. Numerous studies have reported abundant data elucidating the FPM-induced cell death pathways. However, several challenges and knowledge gaps are still confronted nowadays. On one hand, the undefined components of FPM (such as heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and pathogens) are all responsible for detrimental effects, thus rendering it difficult to delineate the specific roles of these copollutants. On the other hand, owing to the crosstalk and interplay among different cell death signaling pathways, precisely determining the threats and risks posed by FPM is difficult. Herein, we recapitulate the current knowledge gaps present in the recent studies regarding FPM-induced cell death, and propose future research directions for policy-making to prevent FPM-induced diseases and improve knowledge concerning the adverse outcome pathways and public health risks of FPM.