In vitro assessment of the genotoxicity and immunotoxicity of treated and untreated municipal effluents and receiving waters in freshwater organisms

Municipal wastewater effluent is one of the largest sources of pollution entering surface waters in the Laurentian Great Lakes. Exposure to wastewater effluent has been associated with impaired immune systems and induction of genotoxicity to aquatic animals. Due to habitat degradation and environmental pollution linked to industrial development and population growth, several regions of the Great Lakes have been designated Areas of Concern (AOCs). In this study, we assessed the effect of extracts of sewage influent, (treated) effluent and receiving surface waters from the Hamilton Harbour AOC and the Toronto and Region AOC (Ontario, Canada) on the phagocytic immune response of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) kidney leukocytes and the genotoxicity (DNA strand breaks) of these extracts on freshwater mussel (Eurynia dilatata) hemocytes. We identified and quantified numerous chemicals present in the various samples extracted for exposure. In freshwater mussels, extracts from Hamilton Harbour AOC induced DNA damage with the most frequency (12 out of 28 samples) regardless of sample type, reflecting past and present industrial activities. In contrast, extracts from Toronto and Region AOC induced DNA damage infrequently (2 out of 32 (summer) and 5 out of 32 (fall) samples, respectively) and from different WWTPs at different times. None of the extracts induced any significant effect on phagocytosis of rainbow trout kidney leukocytes. The present study indicates that despite overall improvements to effluent quality, treatment of influent by WWTPs may not result in a corresponding improvement of the genotoxicity of effluents. In vitro bioassays are useful and cost-effective rapid-screening tools for preliminary assessments of contamination of aquatic ecosystems. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11356-023-26845-1.