Improvement of photocatalytic activity in the degradation of 4-chlorophenol and phenol in aqueous medium using tin-modified TiO(2) photocatalysts

In this work, we present the synthesis of TiO(2) photocatalysts modified with different % mol of tin using the sol–gel method. The materials were characterized using different analytical techniques. The Rietveld refinement, XPS, Raman and UV-Vis techniques confirm the substitution of tin in the TiO(2) structural lattice due to changes in crystal lattice parameters, the low-energy shift of the Sn 3d(5/2) orbital, generation of oxygen vacancies and the decreased band gap and increased BET surface area. The material with 1 mol% tin shows superior catalytic activity compared to the references for the degradation of 40 ppm 4-chlorophenol (3 hours of reaction) and 50 ppm phenol (6 hours of reaction). Reactions fit pseudo first order kinetics in both instances. The increase in photodegradation efficiency was attributed to the generation of energy levels below the TiO(2) conduction band caused by the incorporation of 1% mol of tin, oxygen vacancies, and the heterojunction formed between the brookite–anatase–rutile, causing inhibition of the recombination of the electron (e(−)) and hole (h(+)) photogenerated species. The easy synthesis, low cost and increased photodegradation efficiency of the photocatalyst with 1 mol% tin have the potential to favor the remediation of recalcitrant compounds in water.