Metal(loid)s in tap-water from schools in central Bangladesh (Mirpur): Source apportionment, water quality, and health risks appraisals

Considering the health risks originating from the exposure of metal(loid)s in tap-water and the concomitant vulnerability of school-going students, 25 composite tap water samples from different schools and colleges of central Bangladesh (Mirpur, Dhaka) were analyzed by atomic absorption spectroscopic technique. Elemental abundances of Na, Mg, K, Ca, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn, As, Cd, and Pb in the studied tap water samples varied from 4520 to 62250, 2760–29580, 210–3000, 15780–78130, 1.54–5.32, 7.00–196, 2.00–450, 0.04–1.45, 8.23–24.4, 0.10–813, 0.10–10.5, 0.002–0.212, and 1.55–15.8 μgL(−1), respectively. Dissolved metal(loid)s' concentrations were mostly within the national and international threshold values with few exceptions which were also consistent with the entropy-based water quality assessment. Multivariate statistical approaches demonstrated that hydro-geochemical processes like water-rock interactions mostly govern the major elemental (Na, Mg, K, Ca) compositions in tap water. However, anthropogenic processes typically control the trace elemental compositions where supply pipeline scaling was identified as the major source. Cluster analysis on sampling sites separated two groups of schools and colleges depending on their establishment years where tap water from older schools and colleges possesses relatively higher levels of metal(loid)s. Hence, gradual pipeline scaling on a temporal scale augmented the metal(loid)s' concentrations in tap-water. In terms of non-carcinogenic health risks estimation, studied tap-water seems to be safe, whereas elemental abundances of Pb and As can cause carcinogenic risks to school-going people. However, progressive deterioration of water quality by pipeline scaling will be supposed to cause significant health risks in the future, for which preventative measures should be adopted.