Non-Equilibrium Modeling of Concentration-Driven processes with Constant Chemical Potential Molecular Dynamics Simulations

[Image: see text] Concentration-driven processes in solution, i.e., phenomena that are sustained by persistent concentration gradients, such as crystallization and surface adsorption, are fundamental chemical processes. Understanding such phenomena is crucial for countless applications, from pharmaceuticals to biotechnology. Molecular dynamics (MD), both in- and out-of-equilibrium, plays an essential role in the current understanding of concentration-driven processes. Computational costs, however, impose drastic limitations on the accessible scale of simulated systems, hampering the effective study of such phenomena. In particular, due to these size limitations, closed system MD of concentration-driven processes is affected by solution depletion/enrichment that unavoidably impacts the dynamics of the chemical phenomena under study. As a notable example, in simulations of crystallization from solution, the transfer of monomers between the liquid and crystal phases results in a gradual depletion/enrichment of solution concentration, altering the driving force for phase transition. In contrast, this effect is negligible in experiments, given the macroscopic size of the solution volume. Because of these limitations, accurate MD characterization of concentration-driven phenomena has proven to be a long-standing simulation challenge. While disparate equilibrium and nonequilibrium simulation strategies have been proposed to address the study of such processes, the methodologies are in continuous development. In this context, a novel simulation technique named constant chemical potential molecular dynamics (CμMD) was recently proposed. CμMD employs properly designed, concentration-dependent external forces that regulate the flux of solute species between selected subregions of the simulation volume. This enables simulations of systems under a constant chemical drive in an efficient and straightforward way. The CμMD scheme was originally applied to the case of crystal growth from solution and then extended to the simulation of various physicochemical processes, resulting in new variants of the method. This Account illustrates the CμMD method and the key advances enabled by it in the framework of in silico chemistry. We review results obtained in crystallization studies, where CμMD allows growth rate calculations and equilibrium shape predictions, and in adsorption studies, where adsorption thermodynamics on porous or solid surfaces was correctly characterized via CμMD. Furthermore, we will discuss the application of CμMD variants to simulate permeation through porous materials, solution separation, and nucleation upon fixed concentration gradients. While presenting the numerous applications of the method, we provide an original and comprehensive assessment of concentration-driven simulations using CμMD. To this end, we also shed light on the theoretical and technical foundations of CμMD, underlining the novelty and specificity of the method with respect to existing techniques while stressing its current limitations. Overall, the application of CμMD to a diverse range of fields provides new insight into many physicochemical processes, the in silico study of which has been hitherto limited by finite-size effects. In this context, CμMD stands out as a general-purpose method that promises to be an invaluable simulation tool for studying molecular-scale concentration-driven phenomena.