Spatiotemporal variations, photochemical characteristics, health risk assessment and mid pandemic changes of ambient BTEX in a west Asian metropolis

This study examined the concentration of BTEX in Tehran from 2018 to 2020 in five monitoring stations with different backgrounds, which has been accomplished using the combination of passive sampling and GC-FID method. The total concentration of BTEX was estimated to be 65.39 (µg/m(3)), with a higher average concentration in 2019–2020 (77.79 µg/m(3)) compared to 2018–2019 (53.48 µg/m(3)) due to the leaping concentration of Toluene in the pandemic era. Despite a Benzene concentration decline in recent years, the average annual concentration of Benzene (5.66 µg/m(3)) at five stations remained higher than the EU commission and India standards (5 µg/m(3)) as well as Japan and Iraq thresholds (3 µg/m(3)). Toluene dominated other species in terms of concentrations, mass distribution (~0.6%), followed by m,p–Xylene (~0.2%), Benzene (~0.05–0.1) and Ethylbenzene (< 0.05). The evidence regarding seasonal changes of BTEX in 2019 shows the maximum concentration of these compounds in autumn, which is probably due to heavier traffic compared to other seasons. In contrast, in the first half of 2020 (which encompasses the start of the pandemic period and urban lockdown), point sources seem to play a prominent role in concentration fluctuations, as confirmed by changes in interspecies relationships and lower traffic congestion. The highest mean concentrations were observed in high-traffic, residential and suburban sites, respectively. The study reveals that m,p-Xylene possess the highest Ozone formation potential (~109.46), followed by Toluene (~85.34), o-Xylene (~46.87), Ethylbenzene (~13.52) and Benzene (~2.61). Health risk assessment results indicated the high carcinogenic risk of Benzene (mean = 3.6 × 10(–6)) and the acceptable non-carcinogenic risk of BTEX (hazard index~0.03 < specified limit of 1). Finally, the estimated weighted exposures of BTEX emphasized that residents near the high-traffic districts are more exposed to BTEX. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00477-023-02476-3.