Risk Factors for Colonization With Extended-Spectrum Cephalosporin-Resistant and Carbapenem-Resistant Enterobacterales Among Hospitalized Patients in Kenya: An Antibiotic Resistance in Communities and Hospitals (ARCH) Study

BACKGROUND: The spread of extended-spectrum cephalosporin-resistant Enterobacterales (ESCrE) and carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) represents a significant global public health threat. We identified putative risk factors for ESCrE and CRE colonization among patients in 1 urban and 3 rural hospitals in Kenya. METHODS: During a January 2019 and March 2020 cross-sectional study, stool samples were collected from randomized inpatients and tested for ESCrE and CRE. The Vitek2 instrument was used for isolate confirmation and antibiotic susceptibility testing, and least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (LASSO) regression models were used to identify colonization risk factors while varying antibiotic use measures. RESULTS: Most (76%) of the 840 enrolled participants received ≥1 antibiotic in the 14 days preceding their enrollment, primarily ceftriaxone (46%), metronidazole (28%), or benzylpenicillin-gentamycin (23%). For LASSO models that included ceftriaxone administration, ESCrE colonization odds were higher among patients hospitalized for ≥3 days (odds ratio, 2.32 [95% confidence interval, 1.6–3.37]; P < .001), intubated patients (1.73 [1.03–2.91]; P = .009), and persons living with human immunodeficiency virus (1.70 [1.03–2.8]; P = .029). CRE colonization odds were higher among patients receiving ceftriaxone (odds ratio, 2.23 [95% confidence interval, 1.14–4.38]; P = .025) and for every additional day of antibiotic use (1.08 [1.03–1.13]; P = .002). CONCLUSIONS: While CRE colonization was strongly associated with ceftriaxone use and duration of antibiotic use, the odds of ESCrE colonization increased with exposure to the hospital setting and invasive medical devices, which may reflect nosocomial transmission. These data suggest several areas where hospitals can intervene to prevent colonization among hospitalized patients, both through robust infection prevention and control practices and antibiotic stewardship programs.