The spatial effects of rural toilet retrofitting investment on farmers' medical and health expenditure in China

BACKGROUND: China stretches across a vast area, and different geographical environments and economic and social development conditions, along with learning imitation and factor flow among participants can lead to two major spatial characteristics of toilet retrofitting investment: spatial heterogeneity and spatial correlation. METHODS: This study contributes to explore this topic by assessing the spatial heterogeneity and spatial correlation of toilet retrofitting investment on farmers' medical and health expenditure based on the spatial econometric model. RESULTS: (1) There are significant spatial agglomeration characteristics of both the toilet retrofitting investment and farmers' medical and health expenditure in China. (2) At the national level, the rural toilet retrofitting investment will influence the farmers' medical and health expenditure, and the effect on the local area is greater than on the surrounding areas. (3) After taking into account the differences in natural geographical environment and social and economic development, China is divided into four regions: east, central, west and northeast. In terms of spatial effects within different regions, the intensity of the impact of toilet retrofitting investment on local farmers' medical and health expenditure is in the order of central > eastern > western > northeast. The improvement of people's livelihood in the eastern and central regions by toilet retrofitting investment would lead to imitation by surrounding regions, thus reflecting spillover effects, while in the western region, toilet retrofitting investment would trigger fierce competition in related industries and factor markets, manifesting the competition effect. (4) As for the spatial effects across different regions, the toilet retrofitting investment produces spillover effects in all four regions, among which the intensity of the influence effect is the greatest in the central-western region, followed by the west-northeast, and the influence effect in the east-west is not significant. DISCUSSION: The comprehensive promotion of rural toilet retrofitting should not only focus on investment in the western and northeastern regions, but also strengthen regional communication and cooperation to improve rural residents' health and quality of life.