The Synthesis and Evaluation of Porous Carbon Material from Corozo Fruit (Bactris guineensis) for Efficient Propranolol Hydrochloride Adsorption

This study explores the potential of the corozo fruit (Bactris guineensis) palm tree in the Colombian Caribbean as a source for porous carbon material. Its specific surface area, pore volume, and average pore size were obtained using N(2) adsorption/desorption isotherms. The images of the precursor and adsorbent surface were obtained using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra were obtained to detect the main functional groups present and an X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD) was performed in order to analyze the structural organization of the materials. By carbonizing the fruit stone with zinc chloride, a porous carbon material was achieved with a substantial specific surface area (1125 m(2) g⁻(1)) and pore volume (3.241 × 10−(1) cm(3) g⁻(1)). The material was tested for its adsorption capabilities of the drug propranolol. The optimal adsorption occurred under basic conditions and at a dosage of 0.7 g L⁻(1). The Langmuir homogeneous surface model effectively described the equilibrium data and, as the temperature increased, the adsorption capacity improved, reaching a maximum of 134.7 mg g⁻(1) at 328.15 K. The model constant was favorable to the temperature increase, increasing from 1.556 × 10(−1) to 2.299 × 10(−1) L mg(−1). Thermodynamically, the adsorption of propranolol was found to be spontaneous and benefited from higher temperatures, indicating an endothermic nature (12.39 kJ mol⁻(1)). The negative ΔG(0) values decreased from −26.28 to −29.99 kJ mol(−1), with the more negative value occurring at 328 K. The adsorbent material exhibited rapid kinetics, with equilibrium times ranging from 30 to 120 min, depending on the initial concentration. The kinetics data were well-represented by the general order and linear driving force models. The rate constant of the general order model diminished from 1.124 × 10(−3) to 9.458 × 10(−14) with an increasing concentration. In summary, the leftover stone from the Bactris guineensis plant can be utilized to develop activated carbon, particularly when activated using zinc chloride. This material shows promise for efficiently adsorbing propranolol and potentially other emerging pollutants.