Advances in Stabilization and Enrichment of Shallow Nitrogen-Vacancy Centers in Diamond for Biosensing and Spin-Polarization Transfer

Negatively charged nitrogen-vacancy (NV(−)) centers in diamond have unique magneto-optical properties, such as high fluorescence, single-photon generation, millisecond-long coherence times, and the ability to initialize and read the spin state using purely optical means. This makes NV(−) centers a powerful sensing tool for a range of applications, including magnetometry, electrometry, and thermometry. Biocompatible NV-rich nanodiamonds find application in cellular microscopy, nanoscopy, and in vivo imaging. NV(−) centers can also detect electron spins, paramagnetic agents, and nuclear spins. Techniques have been developed to hyperpolarize (14)N, (15)N, and (13)C nuclear spins, which could open up new perspectives in NMR and MRI. However, defects on the diamond surface, such as hydrogen, vacancies, and trapping states, can reduce the stability of NV(−) in favor of the neutral form (NV(0)), which lacks the same properties. Laser irradiation can also lead to charge-state switching and a reduction in the number of NV(−) centers. Efforts have been made to improve stability through diamond substrate doping, proper annealing and surface termination, laser irradiation, and electric or electrochemical tuning of the surface potential. This article discusses advances in the stabilization and enrichment of shallow NV(−) ensembles, describing strategies for improving the quality of diamond devices for sensing and spin-polarization transfer applications. Selected applications in the field of biosensing are discussed in more depth.