Methylglyoxal improves zirconium stress tolerance in Raphanus sativus seedling shoots by restricting zirconium uptake, reducing oxidative damage, and upregulating glyoxalase I

Raphanus sativus also known as radish is a member of the Brassicaceae family which is mainly cultivated for human and animal consumption. R. sativus growth and development is negatively affected by heavy metal stress. The metal zirconium (Zr) have toxic effects on plants and tolerance to the metal could be regulated by known signaling molecules such as methylglyoxal (MG). Therefore, in this study we investigated whether the application of the signaling molecule MG could improve the Zr tolerance of R. sativus at the seedling stage. We measured the following: seed germination, dry weight, cotyledon abscission (%), cell viability, chlorophyll content, malondialdehyde (MDA) content, conjugated diene (CD) content, hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) content, superoxide (O(2)(•−)) content, MG content, hydroxyl radical (·OH) concentration, ascorbate peroxidase (APX) activity, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, glyoxalase I (Gly I) activity, Zr content and translocation factor. Under Zr stress, exogenous MG increased the seed germination percentage, shoot dry weight, cotyledon abscission, cell viability and chlorophyll content. Exogenous MG also led to a decrease in MDA, CD, H(2)O(2), O(2)(•−), MG and ·OH, under Zr stress in the shoots. Furthermore, MG application led to an increase in the enzymatic activities of APX, SOD and Gly I as well as in the complete blocking of cotyledon abscission under Zr stress. MG treatment decreased the uptake of Zr in the roots and shoots. Zr treatment decreased the translocation factor of the Zr from roots to shoots and MG treatment decreased the translocation factor of Zr even more significantly compared to the Zr only treatment. Our results indicate that MG treatment can improve R. sativus seedling growth under Zr stress through the activation of antioxidant enzymes and Gly I through reactive oxygen species and MG signaling, inhibiting cotyledon abscission through H(2)O(2) signaling and immobilizing Zr translocation.