Human-to-swine introductions and onward transmission of 2009 H1N1 pandemic influenza viruses in Brazil

INTRODUCTION: Once established in the human population, the 2009 H1N1 pandemic virus (H1N1pdm09) was repeatedly introduced into swine populations globally with subsequent onward transmission among pigs. METHODS: To identify and characterize human-to-swine H1N1pdm09 introductions in Brazil, we conducted a large-scale phylogenetic analysis of 4,141 H1pdm09 hemagglutinin (HA) and 3,227 N1pdm09 neuraminidase (NA) gene sequences isolated globally from humans and swine between 2009 and 2022. RESULTS: Phylodynamic analysis revealed that during the period between 2009 and 2011, there was a rapid transmission of the H1N1pdm09 virus from humans to swine in Brazil. Multiple introductions of the virus were observed, but most of them resulted in self-limited infections in swine, with limited onward transmission. Only a few sustained transmission clusters were identified during this period. After 2012, there was a reduction in the number of human-to-swine H1N1pdm09 transmissions in Brazil. DISCUSSION: The virus underwent continuous antigenic drift, and a balance was established between swine-to-swine transmission and extinction, with minimal sustained onward transmission from humans to swine. These results emphasize the dynamic interplay between human-to-swine transmission, antigenic drift, and the establishment of swine-to-swine transmission in shaping the evolution and persistence of H1N1pdm09 in swine populations.