Differential dysregulation of β-TrCP1 and -2 by HIV-1 Vpu leads to inhibition of canonical and non-canonical NF-κB pathways in infected cells

The HIV-1 Vpu protein is expressed late in the virus lifecycle to promote infectious virus production and avoid innate and adaptive immunity. This includes the inhibition of the NF-κB pathway which, when activated, leads to the induction of inflammatory responses and the promotion of antiviral immunity. Here we demonstrate that Vpu can inhibit both canonical and non-canonical NF-κB pathways, through the direct inhibition of the F-box protein β-TrCP, the substrate recognition portion of the Skp1-Cul1-F-box (SCF)(β-TrCP) ubiquitin ligase complex. There are two paralogues of β-TrCP (β-TrCP1/BTRC and β-TrCP2/FBXW11), encoded on different chromosomes, which appear to be functionally redundant. Vpu, however, is one of the few β-TrCP substrates to differentiate between the two paralogues. We have found that patient-derived alleles of Vpu, unlike those from lab-adapted viruses, trigger the degradation of β-TrCP1 while co-opting its paralogue β-TrCP2 for the degradation of cellular targets of Vpu, such as CD4. The potency of this dual inhibition correlates with stabilization of the classical IκBα and the phosphorylated precursors of the mature DNA-binding subunits of canonical and non-canonical NF-κB pathways, p105/NFκB1 and p100/NFκB2, in HIV-1 infected CD4(+) T cells. Both precursors act as alternative IκBs in their own right, thus reinforcing NF-κB inhibition at steady state and upon activation with either selective canonical or non-canonical NF-κB stimuli. These data reveal the complex regulation of NF-κB late in the viral replication cycle, with consequences for both the pathogenesis of HIV/AIDS and the use of NF-κB-modulating drugs in HIV cure strategies. IMPORTANCE: The NF-κB pathway regulates host responses to infection and is a common target of viral antagonism. The HIV-1 Vpu protein inhibits NF-κB signaling late in the virus lifecycle, by binding and inhibiting β-TrCP, the substrate recognition portion of the ubiquitin ligase responsible for inducing IκB degradation. Here we demonstrate that Vpu simultaneously inhibits and exploits the two different paralogues of β-TrCP by triggering the degradation of β-TrCP1 and co-opting β-TrCP2 for the destruction of its cellular targets. In so doing, it has a potent inhibitory effect on both the canonical and non-canonical NF-κB pathways. This effect has been underestimated in previous mechanistic studies due to the use of Vpu proteins from lab-adapted viruses. Our findings reveal previously unappreciated differences in the β-TrCP paralogues, revealing functional insights into the regulation of these proteins. This study also raises important implications for the role of NF-κB inhibition in the immunopathogenesis of HIV/AIDS and the way that this may impact on HIV latency reversal strategies based on the activation of the non-canonical NF-κB pathway.