Urinary biomarkers for hepatocellular carcinoma: current knowledge for clinicians

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most predominant primary liver cancer, causing many illnesses and deaths worldwide. The insidious clinical presentation, difficulty in early diagnosis, and the highly malignant nature make the prognosis of HCC extremely poor. The complex and heterogeneous pathogenesis of HCC poses significant challenges to developing therapies. Urine-based biomarkers for HCC, including diagnostic, prognostic, and monitoring markers, may be valuable supplements to current tools such as serum α-fetoprotein (AFP) and seem promising for progress in precision medicine. Herein, we reviewed the major urinary biomarkers for HCC and assessed their potential for clinical application. Molecular types, testing platforms, and methods for building multimolecule models in the included studies have shown great diversity, thus providing abundant novel tools for future clinical transformation and applications.