Serological evidence for potential yellow fever virus infection in non-human primates, southeastern Mexico

BACKGROUND: Arthropod-borne flaviviruses like dengue virus (DENV) and yellow fever virus (YFV) are major human pathogens. In Latin America, YFV is maintained in sylvatic cycles involving non-human primates (NHP) and forest-dwelling mosquitos. YFV supposedly does not circulate north of Panama. METHODS: We conducted a serologic study for flaviviruses and other emerging viruses in NHP from southeastern Mexico. A total of thirty sera of black-handed spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi, n = 25), black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra, n = 3), and mantled howler monkeys (Al. palliata, n = 2) sampled in 2012 and 2018 were screened by an indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) to detected IgG antibodies against DENV, YFV, Zika virus (ZIKV), West Nile virus (WNV), Rift Valley fever virus, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, and Zaire Ebola virus, and confirmed by plaque reduction neutralization tests (PRNT(90)) representing all mosquito-borne flavivirus serocomplexes circulating in the Americas. RESULTS: A total of 16 sera (53.3%; 95% CI, 34.3–71.7) showed IFA reactivity to at least one tested flavivirus with end-point titers ranging from 1:100 to 1:1000. No serum reacted with other viruses. Monotypic and high mean PRNT(90) endpoint YFV titers of 1:246 were found in 3 black-handed spider monkey sera (10.0%; 95% CI, 2.1–26.5) sampled in 2018 in Tabasco, compared to all other flaviviruses tested. Monotypic endpoint PRNT(90) titers of 1:28 for Ilheus virus and 1:22 for WNV in serum of black howler monkeys sampled in 2018 in Tabasco suggested additional flavivirus exposure. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings may suggest unnoticed YFV circulation. Intensification of YFV surveillance in NHP and vectors is warranted in Mexico and potentially other areas considered free of yellow fever.