The Effects of Anthropogenic Disturbances on the Spatiotemporal Patterns of Medium–Large Mammals in Tropical Volcanic Landscapes

SIMPLE SUMMARY: Human disturbances affect the activity patterns of mammals. This should be considered when managing national parks, especially in densely populated tropical volcanic landscapes. This study was conducted at the Gunung Merapi National Park between 2019 and 2021, and it aimed to determine the interaction between humans and mammals, both temporally and spatially. We found that medium-sized mammals responded to human activities in complex ways: barking deer (Muntiacus muntjac) and leopard cats (Prionailurus bengalensis) modified their activity times to avoid encounters with humans, while the wild boars (Sus scrofa) tended to avoid humans, choosing locations where there was no human presence. Nocturnal animals tended not to be disturbed because they occupied a different temporal niche to humans. No significant behavioral changes in mammals were observed in response to the human disturbances in this area. However, the presence of poachers and exotic predators (such as domestic dogs) should be a concern to national park managers. As a mitigation effort, human activity should be regulated, both temporally and spatially, in the GMNP. Moreover, education regarding domestic dog ownership and an inventory of dog ownership in the surrounding communities should also be carried out to prevent further disturbances to the mammals in the Merapi volcanic ecosystem. ABSTRACT: A comprehensive understanding of the consequences of human interactions with mammals is a critical factor in supporting and conserving species in landscapes dominated by humans, which are increasingly threatened. This study aimed to identify the spatial and temporal interactions between humans and mammals. A non-parametric statistical approach with kernel density was used to detect human–mammal temporal interactions. The species interaction factor (SIF) was applied to calculate the spatial overlap based on the two-species occupancy detection model. The activity patterns of medium mammals were nocturnal, diurnal, and cathemeral. The human–medium mammal pairs with SIF values that were <1 and statistically significant included the human–long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) pair, the human–leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) pair, and the human–barking deer (Muntiacus muntjac) pair. Based on their SIF values and the high overlap in their activity times, the human–macaque pairings had a high risk of conflict. Barking deer and leopard cats displayed a coexistence with humans via time-sharing activities. Due to temporal niche variations with human activities, the existence of nocturnal mammals was relatively uninterrupted. This study showed that most mammals are able to adapt spatially and temporally to various human activities. Nonetheless, efforts to mitigate human–wildlife conflict must be maintained, particularly in the case of severely endangered species, such as the Sunda pangolin.