Pilot Studies on Empathy and Closeness in Mutual Entrainment/Improvisation vs. Formalised Dance with Different Types of Rhythm (Regular, Irregular, and No Rhythm) and Coupling (Visual, Haptic, Full Coupling): Building a Case for the Origin of Dance in Mutual Entrainment Empathic Interactions in the Mother–Infant Dyad

This paper employs a novel research design to examine changes in empathy and closeness in partnered face-to-face dance, considering both different types of rhythm (regular, irregular, and no external rhythm, or ‘mutual entrainment only’) and different types of coupling (visual only, haptic only, and full visual and haptic coupling). Two studies were undertaken to pilot the design. In both studies, the Interpersonal Reactivity Index and Inclusion of Other in the Self were used to measure empathy and closeness, respectively. Study 1 employed 24 participants (12 pairs) distributed across two rhythm conditions, external regular rhythm, and no external rhythm, with full coupling in both conditions. Closeness increased similarly in both conditions. Empathic concern (EC) was significantly affected in the ‘no rhythm’ condition. Study 2 employed 54 participants assigned to form pairs and distributed across all combinations of rhythm and coupling types. Closeness decreased with irregular rhythm. EC increased in the ‘no rhythm’ conditions relative to regular rhythm. Fantasy (F) decreased with haptic coupling only (no visual coupling) while personal distress (PD) increased. In addition, the analyses suggest that perspective taking (PT) increases with irregular rhythm and in the condition without rhythm (mutual entrainment only). The discussion gauges the value of the designs and results for capturing changes in empathy and closeness with different rhythm and coupling types. Capturing such changes is important for research on the origins of dance in empathic mutual entrainment in the mother–infant dyad.