Cu(2)ZnSnS(4) monograin layer solar cells for flexible photovoltaic applications

Monograin powder technology is one possible path to developing sustainable, lightweight, flexible, and semi-transparent solar cells, which might be ideal for integration with various building and product elements. In recent years, the main research focus of monograin technology has centered around understanding the synthesis and optoelectronic properties of kesterite-type absorber materials. Among these, Cu(2)ZnSnS(4) (CZTS) stands out as a promising solar cell absorber due to its favorable optical and electrical characteristics. CZTS is particularly appealing as its constituent elements are abundant and non-toxic, and it currently holds the record for highest power conversion efficiency (PCE) among emerging inorganic thin-film PV candidates. Despite its advantages, kesterite solar cells' PCE still falls significantly behind the theoretical maximum efficiency due to the large V(OC) deficit. This review explores various strategies aimed at improving V(OC) losses to enhance the overall performance of CZTS monograin layer solar cells. It was found that low-temperature post-annealing of CZTS powders reduced Cu–Zn disordering, increasing E(g) by ∼100 meV and V(OC) values; however, achieving the optimal balance between ordered and disordered regions in kesterite materials is crucial for enhancing photovoltaic device performance due to the coexistence of ordered and disordered phases. CZTS alloying with Ag and Cd suppressed non-radiative recombination and increased short-circuit current density. Optimizing Ag content at 1% reduced Cu(Zn) antisite defects, but higher Ag levels compensated for acceptor defects, leading to reduced carrier density and decreased solar cell performance. Co-doping with Li and K resulted in an increased bandgap (1.57 eV) and improved V(OC), but further optimization is required due to a relatively large difference between measured and theoretical V(OC). Heterojunction modifications led to the most effective PCE improvement in CZTS-based solar cells, achieving an overall efficiency of 12.06%.