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Long-term exposure to exogenous phthalate, masculinity and femininity trait, and gender identity in children: a Chinese 3-year longitudinal cohort study
BACKGROUND: Phthalate esters (PAEs) are known to have hormone-like properties, and there is a growing trend of children expressing a gender identity different from assigned sex. However, there has been limited research in the potential links between PAEs exposure and gender identity. METHODS: A tota...
Autores principales: | , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , |
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Formato: | Online Artículo Texto |
Lenguaje: | English |
Publicado: |
BioMed Central
2023
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Materias: | |
Acceso en línea: | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10683128/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38012654 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12940-023-01031-5 |
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author | Liu, Jieyu Gao, Di Wang, Huan Li, Yanhui Chen, Manman Ma, Qi Wang, Xinxin Cui, Mengjie Chen, Li Zhang, Yi Guo, Tongjun Yuan, Wen Ma, Tao Jiang, Jianuo Dong, Yanhui Zou, Zhiyong Ma, Jun |
author_facet | Liu, Jieyu Gao, Di Wang, Huan Li, Yanhui Chen, Manman Ma, Qi Wang, Xinxin Cui, Mengjie Chen, Li Zhang, Yi Guo, Tongjun Yuan, Wen Ma, Tao Jiang, Jianuo Dong, Yanhui Zou, Zhiyong Ma, Jun |
author_sort | Liu, Jieyu |
collection | PubMed |
description | BACKGROUND: Phthalate esters (PAEs) are known to have hormone-like properties, and there is a growing trend of children expressing a gender identity different from assigned sex. However, there has been limited research in the potential links between PAEs exposure and gender identity. METHODS: A total of 571 children (278 boys) completed the follow-up from Oct 2017 to Oct 2020 in Childhood Blood Pressure and Environmental Factors (CBPEF) cohort in Xiamen, China. Urinary PAE metabolites were measured at three time of visits using ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The Children’s Sex Role Inventory scale was used to assess gender identity (masculinity, femininity, androgyny and undifferentiated), and Tanner definition was used to define puberty timing. Generalized linear models and log-binomial regression were used to assess the relationships between PAEs exposure, gender trait scores and gender identity. RESULTS: Overall, the concentration of most PAEs in more than 90% of participants was above the limit of detection values. In visit 1, there were 10.1% boys with femininity and 11.3% girls with masculinity; while these figures increased to 10.8% and 12.3% during follow-up, respectively. Early puberty onset accounted for 24.8% and 25.6% among boys and girls. Long-term exposure to mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP) (β = 1.20, 95%CI = 0.13, 2.28), mono-2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl phthalate (MEHHP) (β = 1.25, 95%CI = 0.22, 2.28) and mono-2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl phthalate (MEOHP) (β = 1.40, 95%CI = 0.24, 2.56) was associated with the increased differences of femininity trait scores in boys who enter puberty earlier, prolonged exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) might also have such a positive impact (β = 1.38, 95%CI = 0.36, 2.41). For gender identity, persistent exposure to low molecular weight phthalates (LMWP) was negatively associated with undifferentiated type among boys entering puberty earlier (RR = 0.18, 95%CI = 0.05, 0.75, P < 0.05), and most of the PAE metabolites exposures showed risk ratios > 1 for their femininity. CONCLUSION: Long-term exposure to PAEs increase the femininity trait scores in boys with early onset of puberty. Although the mechanisms remain to be determined, environmental pollution might have subtle, yet measurable effects on childhood gender identity. Reducing these chemicals exposure has important public implications on gender development. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12940-023-01031-5. |
format | Online Article Text |
id | pubmed-10683128 |
institution | National Center for Biotechnology Information |
language | English |
publishDate | 2023 |
publisher | BioMed Central |
record_format | MEDLINE/PubMed |
spelling | pubmed-106831282023-11-30 Long-term exposure to exogenous phthalate, masculinity and femininity trait, and gender identity in children: a Chinese 3-year longitudinal cohort study Liu, Jieyu Gao, Di Wang, Huan Li, Yanhui Chen, Manman Ma, Qi Wang, Xinxin Cui, Mengjie Chen, Li Zhang, Yi Guo, Tongjun Yuan, Wen Ma, Tao Jiang, Jianuo Dong, Yanhui Zou, Zhiyong Ma, Jun Environ Health Research BACKGROUND: Phthalate esters (PAEs) are known to have hormone-like properties, and there is a growing trend of children expressing a gender identity different from assigned sex. However, there has been limited research in the potential links between PAEs exposure and gender identity. METHODS: A total of 571 children (278 boys) completed the follow-up from Oct 2017 to Oct 2020 in Childhood Blood Pressure and Environmental Factors (CBPEF) cohort in Xiamen, China. Urinary PAE metabolites were measured at three time of visits using ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The Children’s Sex Role Inventory scale was used to assess gender identity (masculinity, femininity, androgyny and undifferentiated), and Tanner definition was used to define puberty timing. Generalized linear models and log-binomial regression were used to assess the relationships between PAEs exposure, gender trait scores and gender identity. RESULTS: Overall, the concentration of most PAEs in more than 90% of participants was above the limit of detection values. In visit 1, there were 10.1% boys with femininity and 11.3% girls with masculinity; while these figures increased to 10.8% and 12.3% during follow-up, respectively. Early puberty onset accounted for 24.8% and 25.6% among boys and girls. Long-term exposure to mono-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP) (β = 1.20, 95%CI = 0.13, 2.28), mono-2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl phthalate (MEHHP) (β = 1.25, 95%CI = 0.22, 2.28) and mono-2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl phthalate (MEOHP) (β = 1.40, 95%CI = 0.24, 2.56) was associated with the increased differences of femininity trait scores in boys who enter puberty earlier, prolonged exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) might also have such a positive impact (β = 1.38, 95%CI = 0.36, 2.41). For gender identity, persistent exposure to low molecular weight phthalates (LMWP) was negatively associated with undifferentiated type among boys entering puberty earlier (RR = 0.18, 95%CI = 0.05, 0.75, P < 0.05), and most of the PAE metabolites exposures showed risk ratios > 1 for their femininity. CONCLUSION: Long-term exposure to PAEs increase the femininity trait scores in boys with early onset of puberty. Although the mechanisms remain to be determined, environmental pollution might have subtle, yet measurable effects on childhood gender identity. Reducing these chemicals exposure has important public implications on gender development. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12940-023-01031-5. BioMed Central 2023-11-28 /pmc/articles/PMC10683128/ /pubmed/38012654 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12940-023-01031-5 Text en © The Author(s) 2023 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ (https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data. |
spellingShingle | Research Liu, Jieyu Gao, Di Wang, Huan Li, Yanhui Chen, Manman Ma, Qi Wang, Xinxin Cui, Mengjie Chen, Li Zhang, Yi Guo, Tongjun Yuan, Wen Ma, Tao Jiang, Jianuo Dong, Yanhui Zou, Zhiyong Ma, Jun Long-term exposure to exogenous phthalate, masculinity and femininity trait, and gender identity in children: a Chinese 3-year longitudinal cohort study |
title | Long-term exposure to exogenous phthalate, masculinity and femininity trait, and gender identity in children: a Chinese 3-year longitudinal cohort study |
title_full | Long-term exposure to exogenous phthalate, masculinity and femininity trait, and gender identity in children: a Chinese 3-year longitudinal cohort study |
title_fullStr | Long-term exposure to exogenous phthalate, masculinity and femininity trait, and gender identity in children: a Chinese 3-year longitudinal cohort study |
title_full_unstemmed | Long-term exposure to exogenous phthalate, masculinity and femininity trait, and gender identity in children: a Chinese 3-year longitudinal cohort study |
title_short | Long-term exposure to exogenous phthalate, masculinity and femininity trait, and gender identity in children: a Chinese 3-year longitudinal cohort study |
title_sort | long-term exposure to exogenous phthalate, masculinity and femininity trait, and gender identity in children: a chinese 3-year longitudinal cohort study |
topic | Research |
url | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10683128/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/38012654 http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12940-023-01031-5 |
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