Potential ecotoxicological effects of silver nanoparticles and silver sulphide on the endogeic earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa (Savigny 1826)

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are increasingly used in consumer products and subsequently arrive in wastewater systems, accumulating as silver sulphide (Ag(2)S) in the resulting biosolids, which are commonly spread onto agricultural fields as a fertiliser. Experiments were performed to investigate the effect of AgNPs, using the endogeic earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa as a test organism. In an acute toxicity experiment, A. caliginosa were exposed to soil containing different concentrations of AgNPs (0, 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 250, 500, 750, and 1000 mg kg(−1) dry soil) and Ag(2)S (0, 10, 50, 100, 500, and 1000 mg kg(−1) dry soil). Earthworm biomass and mortality were monitored. Earthworms exposed to 500, 750 and 1000 mg kg(−1) fresh AgNPs had mortality rates of 20%, 60% and 70%, respectively. Changes in biomass were directly related to AgNP concentration. Exposure to Ag(2)S did not affect biomass or mortality. Further experiments used 0, 10, 50, 100 and 250 mg kg(−1) AgNPs and 0, 50, 100, 500, and 1000 mg kg(−1) Ag(2)S to evaluate sublethal effects on A. caliginosa. Avoidance behaviour in a linear gradient was evaluated after 14 days. Earthworms significantly preferred soil that was free of either AgNPs or Ag(2)S. The same concentrations were used to assess effects on cocoon production of A. caliginosa exposed to AgNPs and Ag(2)S. In the first 3 months of AgNP exposure, higher concentrations had a negative effect on cocoon production, but this effect diminished thereafter. Ag(2)S had no discernible effect on reproduction. Overall, introduction of AgNPs into the soil through the application of biosolids appears to be of low concern to the tested endogeic earthworm.