Associations of serum carotenoids with visceral adiposity index and lipid accumulation product: a cross-sectional study based on NHANES 2001–2006

BACKGROUND: Visceral adiposity index (VAI) and lipid accumulation product (LAP) are comprehensive indicators to evaluate visceral fat and determine the metabolic health of individuals. Carotenoids are a group of naturally occurring antioxidants associated with several diseases. The purpose of this investigation was to explore the association between serum carotenoid concentration and VAI or LAP. METHODS: The data were obtained from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey between 2001 and 2006. The levels of serum carotenoids were evaluated using high-performance liquid chromatography. Multivariate linear regression models were employed to investigate the relationship between levels of serum carotenoids and VAI or LAP. The potential non-linear relationship was determined using threshold effect analysis and fitted smoothing curves. Stratification analysis was performed to investigate the potential modifying factors. RESULTS: In total, 5,084 participants were included in this population-based investigation. In the multivariate linear regressions, compared to the lowest quartiles of serum carotenoids, the highest quartiles were significantly associated with VAI, and the effect size (β) and 95% CI was − 0.98 (− 1.34, − 0.62) for α-carotene, − 1.39 (− 1.77, − 1.00) for β-carotene, − 0.79 (− 1.18, − 0.41) for β-cryptoxanthin, − 0.68 (− 0.96, − 0.39) for lutein/zeaxanthin, and − 0.88 (− 1.50, − 0.27) for trans-lycopene. Using piece-wise linear regression models, non-linear relationships were found between β­carotene and trans-lycopene and VAI with an inflection point of 2.44 (log2-transformed, ug/dL) and 3.80 (log2-transformed, ug/dL), respectively. The results indicated that α-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, and lutein/zeaxanthin were linearly associated with VAI. An inverse association was also found between serum carotenoids and LAP after complete adjustments. CONCLUSION: This study revealed that several serum carotenoids were associated with VAI or LAP among the general American population. Further large prospective investigations are warranted to support this finding. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12944-023-01945-6.