The Short-Chain Fatty Acid Methoxyacetic Acid Disrupts Endogenous Estrogen Receptor-α–Mediated Signaling

BACKGROUND: Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether (EGME) exposure is associated with impaired reproductive function. The primary metabolite of EGME is methoxyacetic acid (MAA), a short-chain fatty acid that inhibits histone deacetylase activity and alters gene expression. OBJECTIVE: Because estrogen signaling is necessary for normal reproductive function and modulates gene expression, the estrogen-signaling pathway is a likely target for MAA; however, little is known about the effects of MAA in this regard. METHODS: We evaluated the mechanistic effects of MAA on estrogen receptor (ER) expression and estrogen signaling using in vitro and in vivo model systems. RESULTS: MAA potentiates 17β-estradiol (E(2)) stimulation of an estrogen-responsive reporter plasmid in HeLa cells transiently transfected with either a human ERα or ERβ expression vector containing a cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter. This result is attributed to increased exogenous ER expression due to MAA-mediated activation of the CMV promoter. In contrast to its effects on exogenous ER, MAA decreases endogenous ERα expression and attenuates E(2)-stimulated endogenous gene expression in both MCF-7 cells and the mouse uterus. CONCLUSIONS: These results illustrate the importance of careful experimental design and analysis when assessing the potential endocrine-disrupting properties of a compound to ensure biological responses are in concordance with in vitro analyses. Given the established role of the ER in normal reproductive function, the effects of MAA on the endogenous ER reported here are consistent with the reproductive abnormalities observed after EGME exposure and suggest that these toxicities may be due, at least in part, to attenuation of endogenous ER-mediated signaling.