Antimicrobial activity of spherical silver nanoparticles prepared using a biocompatible macromolecular capping agent: evidence for induction of a greatly prolonged bacterial lag phase

BACKGROUND: We have evaluated the antimicrobial properties of Ag-based nanoparticles (Nps) using two solid phase bioassays and found that 10-20 μL of 0.3-3 μM keratin-stabilized Nps (depending on the starting bacterial concentration = C(I)) completely inhibited the growth of an equivalent volume of ca. 10(3 )to 10(4 )colony forming units per mL (CFU mL(-1)) Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella Typhimurium, or Escherichia coli O157:H7 on solid surfaces. Even after one week at 37°C on solid media, no growth was observed. At lower Np concentrations (= [Np]s), visible colonies were observed but they eventually ceased growing. RESULTS: To further study the physiology of this growth inhibition, we repeated these experiments in liquid phase by observing microbial growth via optical density at 590 nm (OD) at 37°C in the presence of a [Np] = 0 to 10(-6 )M. To extract various growth parameters we fit all OD[t] data to a common sigmoidal function which provides measures of the beginning and final OD values, a first-order rate constant (k), as well as the time to calculated 1/2-maximal OD (t(m)) which is a function of C(I), k, as well as the microbiological lag time (T). Performing such experiments using a 96-well microtitre plate reader, we found that growth always occurred in solution but t(m )varied between 7 (controls; C(I )= 8 × 10(3 )CFU mL(-1)) and > 20 hrs using either the citrate-([Np] ~ 3 × 10(-7 )M) or keratin-based ([Np] ~ 10(-6 )M) Nps and observed that {∂t(m)/∂ [Np]}(citrate )~ 5 × 10(7 )and {∂t(m)/∂ [Np]}(keratin )~ 10(7 )hr·L mol(-1). We also found that there was little effect of Nps on S. aureus growth rates which varied only between k = 1.0 and 1.2 hr(-1 )(1.1 ± 0.075 hr(-1)). To test the idea that the Nps were changing the initial concentration (C(I)) of bacteria (i.e., cell death), we performed probabilistic calculations assuming that the perturbations in t(m )were due to C(I )alone. We found that such large perturbations in t(m )could only come about at a C(I )where the probability of any growth at all was small. This result indicates that much of the Np-induced change in t(m )was due to a greatly increased T (e.g., from ca. 1 to 15-20 hrs). For the solid phase assays we hypothesize that the bacteria eventually became non-culturable since they were inhibited from undergoing further cell division (T > many days). CONCLUSION: We propose that the difference between the solid and liquid system relates to the obvious difference in the exposure, or residence, time of the Nps with respect to the bacterial cell membrane inasmuch as when small, Np-inhibited colonies were selected and streaked on fresh (i.e., no Nps present) media, growth proceeded normally: e.g., a small, growth-inhibited colony resulted in a plateful of typical S. aureus colonies when streaked on fresh, solid media.