Transcriptional profiling of vaccine‐induced immune responses in humans and non‐human primates

There is an urgent need for pre‐clinical and clinical biomarkers predictive of vaccine immunogenicity, efficacy and safety to reduce the risks and costs associated with vaccine development. Results emerging from immunoprofiling studies in non‐human primates and humans demonstrate clearly that (i) type and duration of immune memory are largely determined by the magnitude and complexity of the innate immune signals and (ii) genetic signatures highly predictive of B‐cell and T‐cell responses can be identified for specific vaccines. For vaccines with similar composition, e.g. live attenuated viral vaccines, these signatures share common patterns. Signatures predictive of vaccine efficacy have been identified in a few experimental challenge studies. This review aims to give an overview of the current literature on immunoprofiling studies in humans and also presents some of our own data on profiling of licensed and experimental vaccines in non‐human primates.