Assessing the impact of race, social factors and air pollution on birth outcomes: a population-based study

BACKGROUND: Both air pollution exposure and socioeconomic status (SES) are important indicators of children’s health. Using highly resolved modeled predictive surfaces, we examine the joint effects of air pollution exposure and measures of SES in a population level analysis of pregnancy outcomes in North Carolina (NC). METHODS: Daily measurements of particulate matter <2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter (PM(2.5)) and ozone (O(3)) were calculated through a spatial hierarchical Bayesian model which produces census-tract level point predictions. Using multilevel models and NC birth data from 2002–2006, we examine the association between pregnancy averaged PM(2.5) and O(3), individual and area-based SES indicators, and birth outcomes. RESULTS: Maternal race and education, and neighborhood household income were associated with adverse birth outcomes. Predicted concentrations of PM(2.5) and O(3) were also associated with an additional effect on reductions in birth weight and increased risks of being born low birth weight and small for gestational age. CONCLUSIONS: This paper builds on and complements previous work on the relationship between pregnancy outcomes and air pollution exposure by using 1) highly resolved air pollution exposure data; 2) a five-year population level sample of pregnancies; and 3) including personal and areal level measures of social determinants of pregnancy outcomes. Results show a stable and negative association between air pollution exposure and adverse birth outcomes. Additionally, the more socially disadvantaged populations are at a greater risk; controlling for both SES and environmental stressors provides a better understanding of the contributing factors to poor children’s health outcomes.