Current advances related to Clostridium difficile infection

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) can trigger various responses, ranging from asymptomatic carriage to fulminant colitis. Hard-to-cure CDI, such as severe CDI, multiple recurrences of CDI, refractory CDI, and hypervirulent strains of C. difficile, require new treatments, although antibiotics such as metronidazole and vancomycin are the treatment of choice for initial and first relapsing CDI. Active immunization with C. difficile toxins and faecal microbiota transplantation deserve special attention. Here we describe these strategies for difficult-to-treat CDI.