Orbital tomography: Molecular band maps, momentum maps and the imaging of real space orbitals of adsorbed molecules

The frontier orbitals of molecules are the prime determinants of their chemical, optical and electronic properties. Arguably, the most direct method of addressing the (filled) frontier orbitals is ultra-violet photoemission spectroscopy (UPS). Although UPS is a mature technique from the early 1970s on, the angular distribution of the photoemitted electrons was thought to be too complex to be analysed quantitatively. Recently angle resolved UPS (ARUPS) work on conjugated molecules both, in ordered thick films and chemisorbed monolayers, has shown that the angular (momentum) distribution of the photocurrent from orbital emissions can be simply understood. The approach, based on the assumption of a plane wave final state is becoming known as orbital tomography. Here we will demonstrate, with selected examples of pentacene (5A) and sexiphenyl (6P), the potential of orbital tomography. First it will be shown how the full angular distribution of the photocurrent (momentum map) from a specific orbital is related to the real space orbital by a Fourier transform. Examples of the reconstruction of 5A orbitals will be given and the procedure for recovering the lost phase information will be outlined. We then move to examples of sexiphenyl where we interrogate the original band maps of thick sexiphenyl in the light of our understanding of orbital tomography that has developed since then. With comparison to theoretical simulations of the molecular band maps, the molecular conformation and orientation will be concluded. New results for the sexiphenyl monolayer on Al(1 1 0) will then be presented. From the band maps it will be concluded that the molecule is planarised and adopts a tilted geometry. Finally the momentum maps down to HOMO-11 will be analysed and real space orbitals reconstructed.