Understanding Chemical versus Electrostatic Shifts in X-ray Photoelectron Spectra of Organic Self-Assembled Monolayers

[Image: see text] The focus of the present article is on understanding the insight that X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) measurements can provide when studying self-assembled monolayers. Comparing density functional theory calculations to experimental data on deliberately chosen model systems, we show that both the chemical environment and electrostatic effects arising from a superposition of molecular dipoles influence the measured core-level binding energies to a significant degree. The crucial role of the often overlooked electrostatic effects in polar self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) is unambiguously demonstrated by changing the dipole density through varying the SAM coverage. As a consequence of this effect, care has to be taken when extracting chemical information from the XP spectra of ordered organic adsorbate layers. Our results, furthermore, imply that XPS is a powerful tool for probing local variations in the electrostatic energy in nanoscopic systems, especially in SAMs.