Effect of nanoparticles on red clover and its symbiotic microorganisms

BACKGROUND: Nanoparticles are produced and used worldwide and are released to the environment, e.g., into soil systems. Titanium dioxide (TiO(2)) nanoparticles (NPs), carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and cerium dioxide (CeO(2)) NPs are among the ten most produced NPs and it is therefore important to test, whether these NPs affect plants and symbiotic microorganisms that help plants to acquire nutrients. In this part of a joint companion study, we spiked an agricultural soil with TiO(2) NPs, multi walled CNTs (MWCNTs), and CeO(2) NPs and we examined effects of these NP on red clover, biological nitrogen fixation by rhizobia and on root colonization of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). We also tested whether effects depended on the concentrations of the applied NPs. RESULTS: Plant biomass and AMF root colonization were not negatively affected by NP exposure. The number of flowers was statistically lower in pots treated with 3 mg kg(−1) MWCNT, and nitrogen fixation slightly increased at 3000 mg kg(−1) MWCNT. CONCLUSIONS: This study revealed that red clover was more sensitive to MWCNTs than TiO(2) and CeO(2) NPs. Further studies are necessary for finding general patterns and investigating mechanisms behind the effects of NPs on plants and plant symbionts. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12951-016-0188-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.