Microprofiling of nitrogen patches in paddy soil: Analysis of spatiotemporal nutrient heterogeneity at the microscale

Flooded paddy soil ecosystems in the tropics support the cultivation of the majority of the world’s leading crop, rice, and nitrogen (N) availability in the paddy-soil rooting zone limits rice production more than any other nutritional factor. Yet, little is known about the dynamic response of paddy soil to N-fertiliser application, in terms of horizontal and vertical patchiness in N distribution and transformation. Here, we present a microscale analysis of the profile of ammonium (NH(4)(+)) and nitrate (NO(3)(−)), nitrification, oxygen (O(2water) and O(2soil)), and pH (pH(water) and pH(soil)) in paddy soils, collected from two representative rice-production areas in subtropical China. NH(4)(+) and NO(3)(−) exhibited dramatic spatiotemporal profiles within N patches on the microscale. We show that pH(soil) became constant at 1.0–3.5 mm depth, and O(2soil) became undetectable at 1.7–4.0 mm. Fertiliser application significantly increased pH, and decreased O(2), within N patches. Path analysis showed that the factors governing nitrification scaled in the order: pH(water) > pH(soil) > NH(4)(+) > O(2water) > NO(3)(−) > O(2soil). We discuss the soil properties that decide the degree of nutrient patchiness within them and argue that such knowledge is critical to intelligent appraisals of nutrient-use efficiencies in the field.