In vivo multiphoton imaging of immune cell dynamics

Multiphoton imaging has been utilized to analyze in vivo immune cell dynamics over the last 15 years. Particularly, it has deepened the understanding of how immune responses are organized by immune cell migration and interactions. In this review, we first describe the following technical advances in recent imaging studies that contributed to the new findings on the regulation of immune responses and inflammation. Improved multicolor imaging of immune cell behavior has revealed that their interactions are spatiotemporally coordinated to achieve efficient and long-term immunity. The use of photoactivatable and photoconvertible fluorescent proteins has increased duration and volume of cell tracking, even enabling the analysis of inter-organ migration of immune cells. In addition, visualization of immune cell activation using biosensors for intracellular calcium concentration and signaling molecule activities has started to give further mechanistic insights. Then, we also introduce recent imaging analyses of interactions between immune cells and non-immune cells including endothelial, fibroblastic, epithelial, and nerve cells. It is argued that future imaging studies that apply updated technical advances to analyze interactions between immune cells and non-immune cells will be important for thorough physiological understanding of the immune system. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00424-016-1882-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.