The life of the freshwater bryozoan Stephanella hina (Bryozoa, Phylactolaemata)—a crucial key to elucidating bryozoan evolution

BACKGROUND: Phylactolaemata is the earliest branch and the sister group to all extant bryozoans. It is considered a small relict group that, perhaps due to the invasion of freshwater, has retained ancestral features. Reconstruction of the ground pattern of Phylactolaemata is thus essential for reconstructing the ground pattern of all Bryozoa, and for inferring phylogenetic relationships to possible sister taxa. It is well known that Stephanella hina, the sole member of the family Stephanelllidae, is probably one of the earliest offshoots among the Phylactolaemata and shows some morphological peculiarities. However, key aspects of its biology are largely unknown. The aim of the present study was to analyze live specimens of this species, in order to both document its behavior and describe its colony morphology. RESULTS: The colony morphology of Stephanella hina consists of zooidal arrangements with lateral budding sites reminiscent of other bryozoan taxa, i.e., Steno- and Gymnolaemata. Zooids protrude vertically from the substrate and are covered in a non-rigid jelly-like ectocyst. The latter is a transparent, sticky hull that for the most part shows no distinct connection to the endocyst. Interestingly, individual zooids can be readily separated from the rest of the colony. The loose tube-like ectocyst can be removed from the animals that produces individuals that are unable to retract their lophophore, but merely shorten their trunk by contraction of the retractor muscles. CONCLUSIONS: These observations indicate that S. hina is unique among Phylactolaemata and support the notion that bryozoans evolved from worm-like ancestors. In addition, we raise several arguments for its placement into a separate family, Stephanellidae, rather than among the Plumatellidae, as previously suggested. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40851-016-0060-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.