Does nitrogen fertilization history affects short-term microbial responses and chemical properties of soils submitted to different glyphosate concentrations?

The use of nitrogen (N) fertilizer and glyphosate-based herbicides is increasing worldwide, with agriculture holding the largest market share. The agronomic and socioeconomic utilities of glyphosate are well established; however, our knowledge of the potential effects of glyphosate applied in the presence or absence of long-term N fertilization on microbial functional activities and the availability of soil nutrients remains limited. Using an ex situ approach with soils that did (N+) or did not (N0) receive synthetic N fertilization for 6 years, we assessed the impact of different rates (no glyphosate, CK; field rate, FR; 100 × field rate, 100FR) of glyphosate application on biological and chemical parameters. We observed that, after immediate application (1 day), the highest dose of glyphosate (100FR) negatively affected the alkaline phosphatase (AlP) activity in soils without N fertilization history and decreased the cation exchange capacity (CEC) in N0 compared to CK and FR treatments with N+. Conversely, the 100FR application increased nitrate (NO(3)(-)) and available phosphorus (PO(4)(3-)) regardless of N fertilization history. Then, after 8 and 15 days, the N+\100FR and N+\FR treatments exhibited the lowest values for dehydrogenase (DH) and AlP activities, respectively, while urease (URE) activity was mainly affected by N fertilization. After 15 days and irrespective of N fertilization history, the FR glyphosate application negatively affected the degradation of carbon substrates by microbial communities (expressed as the average well color development, AWCD). By contrast, the 100FR treatment positively affected AWCD, increasing PO(4)(3-) by 5 and 16% and NO(3)(-) by 126 and 119% in the N+ and N0 treatments, respectively. In addition, the 100FR treatment resulted in an increase in the average net nitrification rate. Principal component analysis revealed that the 100FR glyphosate treatment selected microbial communities that were able to metabolize amine substrates. Overall, the lack of N fertilization in the 6 past years combined with the highest glyphosate application rate (100FR) induced the highest values of AWCD, functional diversity, NO(3)(-), PO(4)(3-) and nitrification. We concluded that the intensive use of N fertilization for 6 years may change the non-target effects of glyphosate application on enzyme activities. The functional activities, nitrification and nutrient contents were increased by glyphosate only when applied at 100 times the field application rate.