Toxicity of Nine (Doped) Rare Earth Metal Oxides and Respective Individual Metals to Aquatic Microorganisms Vibrio fischeri and Tetrahymena thermophila

Despite the increasing use of rare earth elements (REEs) and oxides (REOs) in various technologies, the information on their ecotoxicological hazard is scarce. Here, the effects of La(3+), Ce(3+), Pr(3+), Nd(3+), Gd(3+), CeO(2), and eight doped REOs to marine bacteria Vibrio fischeri and freshwater protozoa Tetrahymena thermophila were studied in parallel with REO dopant metals (Co(2+), Fe(3+), Mn(2+), Ni(2+), Sr(2+)). The highest concentrations of REOs tested were 100 mg/L with protozoa in deionized water and 500 mg/L with bacteria in 2% NaCl. Although (i) most REOs produced reactive oxygen species; (ii) all studied soluble REEs were toxic to bacteria (half-effective concentration, EC(50) 3.5–21 mg metal/L; minimal bactericidal concentration, MBC 6.3–63 mg/L) and to protozoa (EC(50) 28–42 mg/L); and (iii) also some dopant metals (Ni(2+), Fe(3+)) proved toxic (EC(50) ≤ 3 mg/L), no toxicity of REOs to protozoa (EC(50) > 100 mg/L) and bacteria (EC(50) > 500 mg/L; MBC > 500 mg/L) was observed except for La(2)NiO(4) (MBC 25 mg/L). According to kinetics of V. fischeri bioluminescence, the toxicity of REEs was triggered by disturbing cellular membrane integrity. Fortunately, as REEs and REOs are currently produced in moderate amounts and form in the environment insoluble salts and/or oxides, they apparently present no harm to aquatic bacteria and protozoa.