Urea deep placement reduces yield-scaled greenhouse gas (CH(4) and N(2)O) and NO emissions from a ground cover rice production system

Ground cover rice production system (GCRPS), i.e., paddy soils being covered by thin plastic films with soil moisture being maintained nearly saturated status, is a promising technology as increased yields are achieved with less irrigation water. However, increased soil aeration and temperature under GCRPS may cause pollution swapping in greenhouse gas (GHG) from CH(4) to N(2)O emissions. A 2-year experiment was performed, taking traditional rice cultivation as a reference, to assess the impacts of N-fertilizer placement methods on CH(4), N(2)O and NO emissions and rice yields under GCRPS. Averaging across all rice seasons and N-fertilizer treatments, the GHG emissions for GCRPS were 1973 kg CO(2)-eq ha(−1) (or 256 kg CO(2)-eq Mg(−1)), which is significantly lower than that of traditional cultivation (4186 kg CO(2)-eq ha(−1)or 646 kg CO(2)-eq Mg(−1)). Furthermore, if urea was placed at a 10–15 cm soil depth instead of broadcasting, the yield-scaled GHG emissions from GCRPS were further reduced from 377 to 222 kg CO(2)-eq Mg(−1), as N(2)O emissions greatly decreased while yields increased. Urea deep placement also reduced yield-scaled NO emissions by 54%. Therefore, GCRPS with urea deep placement is a climate- and environment-smart management, which allows for maximal rice yields at minimal GHG and NO emissions.