Engineering solutions to ureteral stents: material, coating and design

INTRODUCTION: An ideal stent would offer simple insertion and removal with no discomfort and/or migration, it would have no biofilm formation or encrustation and would also maintain the patient's quality of life. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In this mini-review, we outlined the engineering developments related to stent material, design and coating. RESULTS: There have been a wide variety of in-vitro, model-based, animal-based and clinical studies using a range of commercial and non-commercial stents. Ureteric stents have evolved since their first usage with a wider range of stent design, material and coating available for laboratory and clinical use. CONCLUSIONS: While engineering innovations have led to the evolution of stents, more work needs to be done to address the issues relating to stent encrustation and biofilm formation.