Antimicrobial effects of zero-valent iron nanoparticles on gram-positive Bacillus strains and gram-negative Escherichia coli strains

BACKGROUND: Zero-valent iron nanoparticles (ZVI NPs) have been used extensively for the remediation of contaminated soil and groundwater. Owing to their large active surface area, they serve as strong and effective reductants. However, the ecotoxicity and bioavailability of ZVI NPs in diverse ecological media have not been evaluated in detail and most studies have focused on non-nano ZVI or Fe(0). In addition, the antimicrobial properties of ZVI NPs have rarely been investigated, and the underlying mechanism of their toxicity remains unknown. RESULTS: In the present study, we demonstrate that ZVI NPs exhibited significant toxicity at 1000 ppm against two distinct gram-positive bacterial strains (Bacillus subtilis 3610 and Bacillus thuringiensis 407) but not against two gram-negative strains (Escherichia coli K12 and ATCC11634). Specifically, ZVI NPs caused at least a 4-log and 1-log reductions in cell numbers, respectively, in the two Bacillus strains, whereas no change was detected in the two E. coli strains. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray absorption near-edge, and extended X-ray absorption fine structure spectra confirmed that Bacillus cells exposed to ZVI NPs contained mostly Fe(2)O(3) with some detectable FeS. This finding indicated that Fe(0) nanoparticles penetrated the bacterial cells, where they were subsequently oxidized to Fe(2)O(3) and FeS. RedoxSensor analysis and propidium iodide (PI) staining showed decreased reductase activity and increased PI in both Bacillus strains treated with a high (1000 ppm) concentration of ZVI NPs. CONCLUSION: Taken together, these data show that the toxicity of ZVI NPs was derived from their oxidative properties, which may increase the levels of reactive oxygen species and lead to cell death.