Smoking and the risk of diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis of observational studies

BACKGROUND: Conflicting evidence exists for observational studies on whether tobacco smoking is a risk factor for diabetic nephropathy (DN) in patients with type 1 (T1DM) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). In this meta-analysis, we aimed to assess the effects of tobacco smoking on the development of DN. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We searched MEDLINE and EMBASE databases from their inception to March 31(st), 2017 for cross-sectional, case-control, and prospective cohort studies. We screened reference lists of retrieved articles. Summary relative risks (SRRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated using a random-effects model. RESULTS: A total of nineteen observational studies (1 case-control, 8 cross-sectional and 10 prospective cohort studies) were identified, involving more than 78,000 participants and a total of 17,832 DN cases. Compared with never-smokers, there was an augmented SRR (95% CI) of DN in ever-smokers in patients with T1DM (1.31 [1.06–1.62]; P = 0.006) and T2DM (1.44 [1.24–1.67]; P < 0.001), respectively. In patients with T1DM, the SRR (95% CI) was 1.25 (0.86–1.83) for microalbuminuria only, 1.27 (1.10–1.48) for macroalbuminuria only, and 1.06 (0.97–1.15) for end-stage renal disease (ESRD). In patients with T2DM, the SRR (95% CI) associated with ever smoking was 1.46 (0.94–2.26) for microalbuminuria only, 1.72 (1.04–2.84) for macroalbuminuria only, and 1.10 (0.36–3.33) for ESRD. CONCLUSIONS: Our meta-analysis suggests evidence for cigarette smoking as an independent risk factor for the development of DN in patients with both T1DM and T2DM.