Genetic load in marine animals: a review

Marine invertebrates and fish are well known for their remarkable genetic diversity, which is commonly explained by large population size and the characteristic dispersive nature of their early, planktonic life history. Other potential sources of diversity in marine animals, such as a higher mutation rate, have been much less considered, though evidence for a high genetic load in marine bivalves has been accumulating for nearly half a century. In this review, I examine evidence for a higher genetic load in marine animals from studies of molecular marker segregation and linkage over the last 40 years, and survey recent work examining mutational load with molecular evolution approaches. Overall, marine animals appear to have higher genetic load than terrestrial animals (higher dn/ds ratios, inbreeding load, and segregation dis`tortion), though results are mixed for marine fish and data are lacking for many marine animal groups. Bivalves (oysters) have the highest loads observed among marine animals, comparable only to long-lived plants; however, more data is needed from other bivalves and more marine invertebrate taxa generally. For oysters, a higher load may be related to a chronically lower effective population size that, in concert with a higher mutational rate, elevate the number of deleterious mutations observed. I suggest that future studies use high-throughput sequencing approaches to examine (1) polymorphism in genome-scale datasets across a wider range of marine animals at the population level and (2) intergenerational mutational changes between parents and offspring in crosses of aquaculture species to quantify mutation rates.