Sugarcane juice derived carbon dot–graphitic carbon nitride composites for bisphenol A degradation under sunlight irradiation

Carbon dots (CDs) and graphitic carbon nitride (g-C(3)N(4)) composites (CD/g-C(3)N(4)) were successfully synthesized by a hydrothermal method using urea and sugarcane juice as starting materials. The chemical composition, morphological structure and optical properties of the composites and CDs were characterized using various spectroscopic techniques as well as transmission electron microscopy. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) results revealed new signals for carbonyl and carboxyl groups originating from the CDs in CD/g-C(3)N(4) composites while X-ray diffraction (XRD) results showed distortion of the host matrix after incorporating CDs into g-C(3)N(4). Both analyses signified the interaction between g-C(3)N(4) and CDs. The photoluminescence (PL) analysis indicated that the presence of too many CDs will create trap states at the CD/g-C(3)N(4) interface, decelerating the electron (e(−)) transport. However, the CD/g-C(3)N(4)(0.5) composite with the highest coverage of CDs still achieved the best bisphenol A (BPA) degradation rate at 3.87 times higher than that of g-C(3)N(4). Hence, the charge separation efficiency should not be one of the main factors responsible for the enhancement of the photocatalytic activity of CD/g-C(3)N(4). Instead, the light absorption capability was the dominant factor since the photoreactivity correlated well with the ultraviolet–visible diffuse reflectance spectra (UV–vis DRS) results. Although the CDs did not display upconversion photoluminescence (UCPL) properties, the π-conjugated CDs served as a photosensitizer (like organic dyes) to sensitize g-C(3)N(4) and injected electrons to the conduction band (CB) of g-C(3)N(4), resulting in the extended absorption spectrum from the visible to the near-infrared (NIR) region. This extended spectral absorption allows for the generation of more electrons for the enhancement of BPA degradation. It was determined that the reactive radical species responsible for the photocatalytic activity were the superoxide anion radical (O(2)(•−)) and holes (h(+)) after performing multiple scavenging tests.