TiO(2), SiO(2) and ZrO(2) Nanoparticles Synergistically Provoke Cellular Oxidative Damage in Freshwater Microalgae

Metal-based nanoparticles (NPs) are the most widely used engineered nanomaterials. The individual toxicities of metal-based NPs have been plentifully studied. However, the mixture toxicity of multiple NP systems (n ≥ 3) remains much less understood. Herein, the toxicity of titanium dioxide (TiO(2)) nanoparticles (NPs), silicon dioxide (SiO(2)) NPs and zirconium dioxide (ZrO(2)) NPs to unicellular freshwater algae Scenedesmus obliquus was investigated individually and in binary and ternary combination. Results show that the ternary combination systems of TiO(2), SiO(2) and ZrO(2) NPs at a mixture concentration of 1 mg/L significantly enhanced mitochondrial membrane potential and intracellular reactive oxygen species level in the algae. Moreover, the ternary NP systems remarkably increased the activity of the antioxidant defense enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase, together with an increase in lipid peroxidation products and small molecule metabolites. Furthermore, the observation of superficial structures of S. obliquus revealed obvious oxidative damage induced by the ternary mixtures. Taken together, the ternary NP systems exerted more severe oxidative stress in the algae than the individual and the binary NP systems. Thus, our findings highlight the importance of the assessment of the synergistic toxicity of multi-nanomaterial systems.