Modelling 3D craniofacial growth trajectories for population comparison and classification illustrated using sex-differences

Many disorders present with characteristic abnormalities of the craniofacial complex. Precise descriptions of how and when these abnormalities emerge and change during childhood and adolescence can inform our understanding of their underlying pathology and facilitate diagnosis from craniofacial shape. In this paper we develop a framework for analysing how anatomical differences between populations emerge and change over time, and for binary group classification that adapts to the age of each participant. As a proxy for a disease-control comparison we use a database of 3D photographs of normally developing boys and girls to examine emerging sex-differences. Essentially we define 3D craniofacial ‘growth curves’ for each sex. Differences in the forehead, upper lip, chin and nose emerge primarily from different growth rates between the groups, whereas differences in the buccal region involve different growth directions. Differences in the forehead, buccal region and chin are evident before puberty, challenging the view that sex differences result from pubertal hormone levels. Classification accuracy was best for older children. This paper represents a significant methodological advance for the study of facial differences between growing populations and comprehensively describes developing craniofacial sex differences.