Insights From Pre-Clinical and Clinical Studies on the Role of Innate Inflammation in Atherosclerosis Regression

Atherosclerosis, the underlying cause of coronary artery (CAD) and other cardiovascular diseases, is initiated by macrophage-mediated immune responses to lipoprotein and cholesterol accumulation in artery walls, which result in the formation of plaques. Unlike at other sites of inflammation, the immune response becomes maladaptive and inflammation fails to resolve. The most common treatment for reducing the risk from atherosclerosis is low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) lowering. Studies have shown, however, that while significant lowering of LDL-C reduces the risk of heart attacks to some degree, there is still residual risk for the majority of the population. We and others have observed “residual inflammatory risk” of atherosclerosis after plasma cholesterol lowering in pre-clinical studies, and that this phenomenon is clinically relevant has been dramatically reinforced by the recent Canakinumab Anti-inflammatory Thrombosis Outcomes Study (CANTOS) trial. This review will summarize the role of the innate immune system, specifically macrophages, in atherosclerosis progression and regression, as well as the pre-clinical and clinical models that have provided significant insights into molecular pathways involved in the resolution of plaque inflammation and plaque regression. Partnered with clinical studies that can be envisioned in the post-CANTOS period, including progress in developing targeted plaque therapies, we expect that pre-clinical studies advancing on the path summarized in this review, already revealing key mechanisms, will continue to be essential contributors to achieve the goals of dampening plaque inflammation and inducing its resolution in order to maximize the therapeutic benefits of conventional risk factor modifications, such as LDL-C lowering.