Lead-free hybrid perovskites for photovoltaics

This review covers the state-of-the-art in organo–inorganic lead-free hybrid perovskites (HPs) and applications of these exciting materials as light harvesters in photovoltaic systems. Special emphasis is placed on the influence of the spatial organization of HP materials both on the micro- and nanometer scale on the performance and stability of perovskite-based solar light converters. This review also discusses HP materials produced by isovalent lead(II) substitution with Sn(2+) and other metal(II) ions, perovskite materials formed on the basis of M(3+) cations (Sb(3+), Bi(3+)) as well as on combinations of M(+)/M(3+) ions aliovalent to 2Pb(2+) (Ag(+)/Bi(3+), Ag(+)/Sb(3+), etc.). The survey is concluded with an outlook highlighting the most promising strategies for future progress of photovoltaic systems based on lead-free perovskite compounds.