Effects of Ca(2+) Ion Condensation on the Molecular Structure of Polystyrene Sulfonate at Air–Water Interfaces

[Image: see text] The structure of poly(sodium 4-styrenesulfonate) (NaPSS) polyelectrolytes at air–water interfaces was investigated with tensiometry, ellipsometry, and vibrational sum-frequency generation (SFG) in the presence of low and high CaCl(2) concentrations. In addition, we have studied the foaming behavior of 20 mM NaPSS solutions to relate the PSS molecular structure at air–water interfaces to foam properties. PSS polyelectrolytes without additional salt exhibited significant surface activity, which can be tuned further by additions of CaCl(2). The hydrophobicity of the backbone due to incomplete sulfonation during synthesis is one origin, whereas the effective charge of the polyelectrolyte chain is shown to play another major role. At low salt concentrations, we propose that the polyelectrolyte is forming a layered structure. The hydrophobic parts are likely to be located directly at the interface in loops, whereas the hydrophilic parts are at low concentrations stretched out into near-interface regions in tails. Increasing the Ca(2+) concentration leads to ion condensation, a collapse of the tails, and likely to Ca(2+) intra- and intermolecular bridges between polyelectrolytes at the interface. The increase in both surface excess and foam stability originates from changes in the polyelectrolyte’s hydrophobicity due to Ca(2+) condensation onto the PSS polyanions. Consequently, charge screening at the interface is enhanced and repulsive electrostatic interactions are reduced. Furthermore, SFG spectra of O–H stretching bands reveal a decrease in intensity of the low-frequency branch when c(Ca(2+)) is increased whereas the high-frequency branch of O–H stretching modes persists even for 1 M CaCl(2). This originates from the remaining net charge of the PSS polyanions at the air–water interface that is not fully compensated by condensation of Ca(2+) ions and leads to electric-field-induced contributions to the SFG spectra of interfacial H(2)O. A charge reversal of the PSS net charge at the air–water interface is not observed and is consistent with bulk electrophoretic mobility measurements.