Novel transcriptional responses to heat revealed by turning up the heat at night

KEY MESSAGE: The circadian clock controls many molecular activities, impacting experimental interpretation. We quantify the genome-wide effects of time-of-day on the heat-shock response and the effects of “diurnal bias” in stress experiments. ABSTRACT: Heat stress has significant adverse effects on plant productivity worldwide. Most experiments examining heat stress are performed during daytime hours, generating a ‘diurnal bias’ in the pathways and regulatory mechanisms identified. Such bias may confound downstream interpretations and limit our understanding of the full response to heat stress. Here we show that the transcriptional and physiological responses to a sudden heat shock in Arabidopsis are profoundly sensitive to the time of day. We observe that plant tolerance and acclimation to heat shock vary throughout the day and are maximal at dusk. Consistently, over 75% of heat-responsive transcripts show a time of day-dependent response, including many previously characterized heat-response genes. This temporal sensitivity implies a complex interaction between time and temperature where daily variations in basal transcription influence thermotolerance. When we examined these transcriptional responses, we uncovered novel night-response genes and cis-regulatory elements, underpinning new aspects of heat stress responses not previously appreciated. Exploiting this temporal variation can be applied to most environmental responses to understand the underlying network wiring. Therefore, we propose that using time as a perturbagen is an approach that will enhance our understanding of plant regulatory networks and responses to environmental stresses. ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: The online version of this article (10.1007/s11103-019-00873-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.