The Surface of Ice under Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Conditions

[Image: see text] The ice premelt, often called the quasi-liquid layer (QLL), is key for the lubrication of ice, gas uptake by ice, and growth of aerosols. Despite its apparent importance, in-depth understanding of the ice premelt from the microscopic to the macroscopic scale has not been gained. By reviewing data obtained using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, sum-frequency generation (SFG) spectroscopy, and laser confocal differential interference contrast microscopy (LCM-DIM), we provide a unified view of the experimentally observed variation in quasi-liquid (QL) states. In particular, we disentangle three distinct types of QL states of disordered layers, QL-droplet, and QL-film and discuss their nature. The topmost ice layer is energetically unstable, as the topmost interfacial H(2)O molecules lose a hydrogen bonding partner, generating a disordered layer at the ice–air interface. This disordered layer is homogeneously distributed over the ice surface. The nature of the disordered layer changes over a wide temperature range from −90 °C to the bulk melting point. Combined MD simulations and SFG measurements reveal that the topmost ice surface starts to be disordered around −90 °C through a process that the topmost water molecules with three hydrogen bonds convert to a doubly hydrogen-bonded species. When the temperature is further increased, the second layer starts to become disordered at around −16 °C. This disordering occurs not in a gradual manner, but in a bilayer-by-bilayer manner. When the temperature reaches −2 °C, more complicated structures, QL-droplet and QL-film, emerge on the top of the ice surface. These QL-droplets and QL-films are inhomogeneously distributed, in contrast to the disordered layer. We show that these QL-droplet and QL-film emerge only under supersaturated/undersaturated vapor pressure conditions, as partial and pseudopartial wetting states, respectively. Experiments with precisely controlled pressure show that, near the water vapor pressure at the vapor-ice equilibrium condition, no QL-droplet and QL-film can be observed, implying that the QL-droplet and QL-film emerge exclusively under nonequilibrium conditions, as opposed to the disordered layers formed under equilibrium conditions. These findings are connected with many phenomena related to the ice surface. For example, we explain how the disordering of the topmost ice surface governs the slipperiness of the ice surface, allowing for ice skating. Further focus is on the gas uptake mechanism on the ice surface. Finally, we note the unresolved questions and future challenges regarding the ice premelt.