Utility of Squaraine Dyes for Dye-Sensitized Photocatalysis on Water or Carbon Dioxide Reduction

[Image: see text] Red light-sensitized squaraine (SQ) dyes were developed and incorporated into dye-sensitized catalysts (DSCs) with the formula of SQ/TiO(2)/Cat, and their efficacies were evaluated in terms of performance on either water or carbon dioxide reduction. Pt nanoparticles or fac-[Re(4,4′-bis-(diethoxyphosphorylmethyl)-2,2′-bipyridine)(CO)(3)Cl] were used as each catalytic center within the DSC frame of SQ/TiO(2)/Pt (Type I) or SQ/TiO(2)/Re(I) (Type II). In order to convey the potential utility of SQ in low energy sensitization, the following catalytic reductions were carried out under selective lower energy irradiation (>500 nm). Type I and II showed different catalytic performances, primarily due to the choice of solvent for each catalytic condition: hydrogenation was carried out in H(2)O, but CO(2) reduction in dimethylformamide (DMF), and SQ was more stable in aqueous acid conditions for hydrogen generation than CO(2) reduction in DMF. A suspension of Type I in 3 mL water containing 0.1 M ascorbic acid (pH = 2.66) resulted in efficient photocatalytic hydrogen evolution, producing 37 μmol of H(2) for 4 h. However, in photocatalysis of Type II (SQ/TiO(2)/Re(I)) in 3 mL DMF containing 0.1 M 1,3-dimethyl-2-phenyl-1,3-dihydrobenzimidazole, the TiO(2)-bound SQ dyes were not capable of working as a low energy sensitizer because SQ was susceptible to dye decomposition in nucleophilic DMF conditions, resulting in DSC deactivation for the CO(2) reduction. Even with the limitation of solvent, the DSC conditions for the utility of SQ have been established: the anchoring group effect of SQ with either phosphonic acid or carboxylic acid onto the TiO(2) surface; energy alignment of SQ with the flat band potentials (E(fb)) of TiO(2) semiconductors and the reduction power of electron donors; and the wavelength range of the light source used, particularly when >500 nm.